Political economy of vaccine diplomacy: explaining varying strategies of China, India, and Russia's COVID-19 vaccine diplomacy

The COVID-19 pandemic and global responses to this crisis reveal the changing landscape of global health governance. As countries around the world struggle to secure COVID-19 vaccines for their citizens, some non-Western powers have actively distributed vaccines internationally – an act broadly recognized as vaccine diplomacy. While existing literature suggests that geopolitical concerns affect the selection of recipient countries, it has yet to explain other aspects of vaccine diplomacy. Why are some countries focused on vaccine sales while others are more open to donation? Why do some prefer bilateral to multilateral channels in distributing vaccines? Through comparative analysis of China, India, and Russia, this article shows that political economic factors, in addition to geopolitics, shape the ways non-Western powers conduct vaccine diplomacy. We argue that these countries adjust their strategies in line with their relative advantages in development, manufacturing, and delivery of vaccines. Each country has unique strengths and weakness, which gives rise to the varied patterns in vaccine diplomacy. Our findings suggest that their strategies of vaccine diplomacy are enabled as well as constrained by their economic realities, and the rise of these countries in this field does not necessarily mean an outright challenge to the existing international system. [ FROM AUTHOR] Copyright of Review of International Political Economy is the property of Routledge and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full . (Copyright applies to all s.)

A Study on the Key Elements of Bangladesh's Vaccine Diplomacy During COVID-19

In May 2022, Bangladesh was ranked fifth in a Global Index comprising of 121 countries' performance of managing the impacts of COVID-19 pandemic. The Index provided Bangladesh with global recognition of its endeavours that aimed at lowering the number of confirmed COVID-19 cases since the mid-2020, in which the country's vaccine diplomacy played a greater role. In view of that the present study identified the key elements of Bangladesh's vaccine diplomacy in the context of the pandemic. The study employed the qualitative approach of the social science research, while the data were generated from both primary and secondary sources. The study found that Bangladesh pursued a proactive vaccine diplomacy with a combination of five key elements: identifying the critical areas of intervention, figuring out the volume of internal demand, counting on multiple sources of vaccines, generating diverse source of external funding and making the most use of ‘soft power' strategy. [ FROM AUTHOR] Copyright of Journal of Asian & African Studies (Sage Publications, Ltd.) is the property of Sage Publications, Ltd. and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full . (Copyright applies to all s.)

The Changing Dimensions of India's Foreign Relations During COVID-19

This chapter intends to critically analyze India's changing dimensions of foreign policy during COVID-19. India's strategy to counter China in association with Australia, the USA, Japan, and other democratic countries of the world has been highlighted in this chapter. India's policy of ‘self-reliant' and financial challenges has been sequentially discussed in this chapter. The chapter will further delineate the relations between the domestic factors and external factors in the formulation of the neworientation-based foreign policy of India.COVID-19, it has been discovered, has taught India a valuable lesson. Due to the pandemic, India's foreign policy focus and equations have been steadily altering. India has attempted to improve its acceptability in the post-COVID world with a variety of generous and humanitarian initiatives, as a step toward realizing its global ambitions. The focus is on realizing the idea of Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam. © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022, corrected publication 2022.

Vaccination Nation: Vaccine Diplomacy and the U.S. Vaccine Rollout

The COVID-19 vaccine rollout has as of yet received little attention from geographers. This chapter seeks to look at the spatial aspects of the vaccine distribution, starting with a review of previous vaccination campaigns, then looking at the various types of COVID-19 vaccine. Paying attention to issues of disparities in access, this chapter investigates the U.S. rollout as well as that of other countries. A look is also taken into the emerging vaccine diplomacy, as well as the international program COVAX designed to help distribute the vaccine. This chapter finds that the U.S. vaccine rollout is flawed with people of color more likely to experience difficultly in receiving the vaccine. It is also a spatially uneven rollout, with states distributing vaccine at varying rates across the country. The U.S. response on the international stage also faces some difficulty, with states such as China and Russia pulling ahead in the field of vaccine diplomacy at the expense of American influence abroad. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022.

Transformations of Medical and Vaccine Diplomacies in the COVID-19 Era

The pandemic has produced the global COVID-19 vaccine market with various stakeholders acting in their economic self-interest. At the same time, some governments use vaccines for pursuing national interests and expanding their international influence. Using scientific works on the topic and documents from WHO, GAVI, WTO, IMF, government documents and think tank reports, the author analyzes vaccine diplomacy as a branch of medical diplomacy and identifies changes that occur under pandemic impact. The article examines the current policy of China, as it has achieved the most notable success in medical services export, primarily to developing countries, and Chinese pharmaceutical companies play a prominent role in the global vaccine market. It raises serious concerns of the West, which accuses Beijing of using coronacrisis to establish a new (China-centric) world order. It is concluded that government capacity to protect public health and control epidemic spread is among the significant criteria for evaluating the effectiveness of State policy, and its own vaccine industry begins to be regarded as an important element of national security. There is also a considerable increase in the role of healthcare in foreign policy of a number of States using medical and vaccine diplomacies as a means of achieving political goals. COVID-19 vaccines are becoming a strategic asset that affects the country's position on the world stage and generates a new field of geopolitical rivalry. But at the same time, vaccine diplomacy could serve as a dialogue platform in cases when interstate relations are in a deep crisis. And it may lead to awareness of the need to train specialists in the field of medical diplomacy.

The Political Economy of Pandemic Management in India

India responded to the COVID-19 abruptly, without considering the socio-economic life of the majority of people in India, the sheer diversity of the country, and the large number of people in the informal sector. A nationwide lockdown using the Disaster Management Act 2005 enabled the Union government to sway over the entire country, although health is a state subject in the federal system. India used the opportunity to highlight its credentials as the "pharmacy of the world” by sending medical supplies to over a hundred countries. This chapter will deal with conflicts, contestations, and the foreign policy fallout and gains following the onset of the pandemic and the measures adopted by the Union government to cope with them, with less focus on the economic and epidemiological aspects of pandemic management. The chapter looks at previous studies, press reports, and press releases by government agencies to collect the needed data. A descriptive and analytical approach is followed in the chapter. © 2023, The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG.

Vaccine diplomacy: nation branding and China's COVID-19 soft power play

As a global crisis, COVID-19 has altered how nation-states project influence. Public health has risen to the top of every agenda as individuals, societies, and nation-states focus on a common goal. With the advent of COVID-19 vaccines, home-grown national vaccines when distributed all over the world can play an integral role in nation branding as a technique for projecting soft power. This paper applies the theoretical lenses of nation branding and soft power to examine China's bilateral vaccine diplomacy efforts, specifically the motivations and outcomes. The findings suggest that Chinese vaccines are used not only for image repair and for expanding Beijing's great power ambitions, but also to reinforce and leverage existing soft power programs, and to capitalize on new economic and geopolitical opportunities. Vaccine diplomacy is a natural extension of Chinese soft power including prior engagement in health diplomacy. Sentiment analyses of social media and international media coverage suggest that where vaccines go, influence may follow. Although international sentiments are not all positive—with concerns over Chinese vaccines' efficacy, safety, and data availability, Beijing reaped substantial soft power dividends through its ability to project influence in scientific prowess and civic virtue by providing the vaccines as International Public Goods through aid and gifts to countries left behind by the vaccine inequity.

Pandemic diplomacy and patron–client relations in Sino-Serbian cooperation

Since the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic, the authorities of Serbia have undertaken a concerted effort to secure China's support in containing the coronavirus. This asymmetrical cooperation, apart from aspects concerning health security, has allowed both sides to obtain considerable political and economic benefits. This article examines how China and Serbia utilize pandemic cooperation to pursue and realize their wider foreign and internal policy goals through patron–client ties, as well as highlighting the pitfalls of this kind of relationship. Although the outbreak of the pandemic and the medical cooperation that followed do not constitute a turning point in the well-established relations between the two countries, the article argues that pandemic cooperation has considerably strengthened relations. In many ways, the pattern observed by the authors resembles China's pandemic exchanges with other countries, especially smaller states with authoritarian inclinations. © The Author(s) 2023.

The political economy of vaccine distribution and China's Belt and Road Initiative

To what extent do national strategic interests influence countries' distribution of health assistance during a global health crisis? We examine China's global COVID-19 vaccine allocation, focusing on the relationship between its vaccine prioritization and its geopolitical expansion through the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). We claim China uses its vaccine diplomacy as a comprehensive tool to promote its grand strategy and expand its global leadership and influence. Employing a newly available dataset on Chinese COVID-19 vaccine deliveries for a cross-section of 108 BRI member countries, our study shows that countries with foreign direct investment flows into BRI projects have received more vaccines from China. Our findings confirm that donor strategic concerns affect bilateral foreign assistance. Our results remain robust to several robustness checks, including endogeneity concerns. © 2023 The Author(s). Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of V.K. Aggarwal.

Chinese Vaccine Diplomacy in the Eastern Mediterranean: Continuities and Rupture in Beijing's Soft Power Prospects

This article examines China's vaccine drive in Eastern Mediterranean countries of Türkiye, Egypt, Syria, Lebanon, and the Palestinian territories during 2020–2021 from a soft power angle. 1 Although Chinese COVID-19 era health diplomacy is presented as a major breakthrough in the West, this study argues that continuities are more visible in the Eastern Mediterranean context with regard to China's discourse and diplomatic practices. Beijing invested in the existing notions of propaganda, such as solidarity with developing countries, anti-Americanism, and economic partnership. In assessing the impact of Chinese vaccine diplomacy in the Eastern Mediterranean, the study investigates major diplomatic events and concludes that China could not improve its image in Türkiye in the aftermath of the COVID-19 pandemic. © The Author(s) 2023.

Chinese and Indian COVID-19 Vaccine Diplomacy during the Health Emergency Crisis

Health diplomacy has played a vital role worldwide during the coronavirus outbreak. One crucial mechanism in this regard has been "vaccine diplomacy," which describes country efforts to share COVID-19 vaccines. China and India are ahead of other countries in bilateral vaccine donations due to their South-South Cooperation policies. Looking forward, how and why are these two countries employing their vaccine diplomacy strategies? We compare the engagement of both in this field using a Comparative Foreign Policy Analysis framework. Our results suggest that neither is acting only for altruistic reasons, because economic and political interests are the main drivers behind their strategies.

COVID-19 and China's Global Image

With the outbreak of the novel coronavirus, the PRC experienced one of its worst internal and international crises, in economic terms but above all in terms of image and prestige. The COVID-19 pandemic, in fact, came at a critical juncture in both China's internal and international relations, given that in recent years the communist Government has become a target of criticism on various internal and international issues. At the same time, it represented a crucial challenge for the CCP, while preparing the celebrations for its 100th anniversary and the achievement of its first «centenary goal». Beyond the undeniable effects on the country's economy, undoubtedly the most relevant effects were recorded in terms of image and reputation, as has emerged in different global opinion polls. Despite the Chinese authorities' highly effective management of the health emergency crisis after a first period of inaction, Beijing's authoritarian rule has again been an object of consistent criticism from liberal Western democracies, both on the intrusive methods adopted to cope with the crisis and its aggressiveness in imposing its official narrative regarding events. After analysing the effects of COVID-19 on China's global image, the paper focuses on the importance of «image» for China and its quest for prestige and image-building throughout history, with special reference to the communist experience. In the last part, it reflects on the opportunity that vaccine diplomacy may represent for China to recover its reputation.

Chinese and Indian COVID-19 Vaccine Diplomacy during the Health Emergency Crisis

Health diplomacy has played a vital role worldwide during the coronavirus outbreak. One crucial mechanism in this regard has been "vaccine diplomacy,” which describes country efforts to share COVID-19 vaccines. China and India are ahead of other countries in bilateral vaccine donations due to their South-South Cooperation policies. Looking forward, how and why are these two countries employing their vaccine diplomacy strategies? We compare the engagement of both in this field using a Comparative Foreign Policy Analysis framework. Our results suggest that neither is acting only for altruistic reasons, because economic and political interests are the main drivers behind their strategies. © 2022, INSTBRASILEIRORELACOESINT. All rights reserved.

The COVID-19 Vaccines as Extension of Foreign Policies by Other Means

Existing knowledge of the geopolitics of public health and the coronavirus pandemic indicates that states, particularly the most powerful ones (the United States, China, Russia), have used the current global crisis to strengthen their influence worldwide, in line with their geopolitical, economic, and military aspirations. Geopoliticisation of the COVID-19 vaccines have not been explored so far. Based on the qualitative analysis of the media content and statis-tics on the vaccines' distribution, this article makes two arguments. First, these vaccines have become an extension of foreign policy by other means. Second, geopoliticisation of the distribution of vaccine contributes to an instrumentalisation of the pandemic, raising global insecurity and the destabilisation of states and economies on the periphery and semi-periphery. Due to this new Cold War between the ‘vaccine superpowers', the world has become divided into Western and the Eastern ‘vaccine-blocs'. Within this context, the chances for multilateral cooperation to counter global threats are on a downward trajectory. © Belgrade Centre for Security Policy.

The Role of Moral Foundations and Attitudinal Motivations in the Chinese's Support for China's Vaccine Diplomacy During the COVID-19 Pandemic

During the COVID-19 pandemic, China has been the leading exporter and donor of COVID-19 vaccines in the world. Based on a survey of 460 Chinese participants conducted in mainland China in March 2021, the results showed that the participants' value-expressive attitudes (i.e. their responsibility to help) and esteem attitudes (i.e. China's image and status) were strong predictors of their support for vaccine exports and donations, whereas attitudes related to prevention and a possible vaccine shortage in China were weak predictors. Fairness and ingroup loyalty were the major moral foundations of their support for such international efforts;the influence of fairness and ingroup loyalty was both direct and mediated by value-expressive and esteem attitudes. Collectively, the present results show that support for international efforts can be analysed from a moral, altruistic perspective and thus extend the previous theorising that focused on the transactional nature of international outreach efforts. © The Author(s) 2022.

The Fast Approval and Slow Rollout of Sputnik V: Why Is Russia's Vaccine Rollout Slower than That of Other Nations?

The emergence of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic in the beginning of 2020 led to the deployment of enormous amounts of resources by different countries for vaccine development, and the Russian Federation was the first country in the world to approve a COVID-19 vaccine on 11 August 2020. In our research we sought to crystallize why the rollout of Sputnik V has been relatively slow considering that it was the first COVID-19 vaccine approved in the world. We looked at production capacity, at the number of vaccine doses domestically administered and internationally exported, and at vaccine hesitancy levels. By 6 May 2021, more first doses of Sputnik V had been administered abroad than domestically, suggesting that limited production capacity was unlikely to be the main reason behind the slow rollout. What remains unclear, however, is why Russia prioritized vaccine exportation. We provide three hypotheses that may contribute to explaining the slow domestic rollout: a generalized vaccine distrust among the Russian population, a desire to help less technologically advanced nations, and possible geopolitical incentives.

Transformations of Medical and Vaccine Diplomacies in the COVID-19 Era

The pandemic has produced the global COVID-19 vaccine market with various stakeholders acting in their economic self-interest. At the same time, some governments use vaccines for pursuing national interests and expanding their international influence. Us-ing scientific works on the topic and documents from WHO, GAVI, WTO, IMF, government documents and think tank reports, the author analyzes vaccine diplomacy as a branch of medical diplomacy and identifies changes that occur under pandemic impact. The article examines the current policy of China, as it has achieved the most notable success in medical services export, primarily to developing countries, and Chinese pharmaceutical companies play a prominent role in the global vaccine market. It raises serious concerns of the West, which accuses Beijing of using coronacrisis to establish a new (China-centric) world order. It is concluded that government capacity to protect public health and control epidemic spread is among the significant criteria for evaluating the effectiveness of State policy, and its own vaccine industry begins to be regarded as an important element of national security. There is also a considerable increase in the role of healthcare in foreign policy of a number of States using medical and vaccine diplomacies as a means of achieving political goals. COVID-19 vaccines are becoming a strategic asset that affects the country’s position on the world stage and generates a new field of geopolitical rivalry. But at the same time, vaccine diplomacy could serve as a dialogue platform in cases when interstate relations are in a deep crisis. And it may lead to awareness of the need to train specialists in the field of medical diplomacy. © 2022, MGIMO Universty Press. All rights reserved.

COVID-19 AND CHINA’S GLOBAL IMAGE

With the outbreak of the novel coronavirus, the PRC experienced one of its worst internal and international crises, in economic terms but above all in terms of image and prestige. The COVID-19 pandemic, in fact, came at a critical juncture in both China’s internal and international relations, given that in recent years the communist Government has become a target of criticism on various internal and international issues. At the same time, it represented a crucial challenge for the CCP, while preparing the celebrations for its 100th anniversary and the achievement of its first «centenary goal». Beyond the undeniable effects on the country’s economy, undoubtedly the most rele-vant effects were recorded in terms of image and reputation, as has emerged in different global opinion polls. Despite the Chinese authorities’ highly effective management of the health emergency crisis after a first period of inaction, Beijing’s authoritarian rule has again been an object of consistent criticism from liberal Western democracies, both on the intrusive methods adopted to cope with the crisis and its aggressiveness in imposing its official narrative regarding events. After analysing the effects of COV-ID-19 on China’s global image, the paper focuses on the importance of «image» for China and its quest for prestige and image-building throughout history, with special reference to the communist experience. In the last part, it reflects on the opportunity that vaccine diplomacy may represent for China to recover its reputation. © Viella s.r.l. & Associazione Asia Maior.

Vaccine Diplomacy and Vaccine Nationalism

With the COVID-19 pandemic in place for over two years now, it is time to assess its main aspects and tendencies, and identify the new features it has lent to the international relations landscape. This paper studies two approaches different countries have taken in developing and distributing COVID vaccines during the pandemic;these approaches are defined as ‘vaccine diplomacy’ and ‘vaccine nationalism.’ Until recently, vaccine diplomacy has played only a marginal role in international relations, while vaccine nationalism has not been considered a problem internationally. During the COVID-19 pandemic, both approaches came to the forefront as foreign policy tools that have sharpened existing contradictions between the global North and the global South and exacerbated the confrontation between the West, on the one side, and China and Russia, on the other. Examining cases of cooperation and confrontation between different countries during the development and distribution of COVID vaccines, the authors analyze why and how they tend to employ vaccine diplomacy or vaccine nationalism, whether the two approaches have helped them achieve their goals and helped the world overcome the global healthcare crisis. © 2022, Foreign Policy Research Foundation. All rights reserved.

Brazilian Foreign Policy under J. Bolsonaro: Paradigm Shift?

Brazilian diplomatic tradition implies its becoming a power with global interests. When Jair Bolsonaro, a right-wing conservative president and retired military officer, came to power, he has dramatically changed foreign policy of the country by abandoning great power ambitions in defiance of national interests, which became apparent during the coronavirus crisis. The author views theories underlying Brazil’s foreign policy, as well as its main diplomatic principles. Furthermore, it is shown how they work in practice with the help of such methods as case-study and comparison. The author concludes that most of Bolsonaro’s political projects ruin the legacy of his predecessors who succeeded in making Brazil a country with great power ambitions. Nonetheless, one cannot ignore adjustments in foreign policy of the Republic amidst developments in Ukraine in February 2022. Consequently, Brazil is likely to return to basics of its foreign policy in the near future. (English) [ FROM AUTHOR] Дипломатическая традиция Бразилии предполагает ее становление в качестве дер- жавы с глобальными интересами. Приход к власти правого консервативного политика из военных кругов Жаира Болсонару ознаменовал собой резкую смену внешнеполитического курса: наблюдается временный отказ от великодержавных амбиций в ущерб национальным интересам, что особенно проявилось в связи с пандемией коронавируса. В статье освещаются теории, оказавшие большое влияние на формирование внешней политики Бразилии, а также основные принципы ее дипломатии, закрепленные в базовых внеш- неполитических документах. Далее исследуется преломление этих принципов на практике при помощи та- ких методов как case-study и историко-сравнительный. Автор приходит к выводу, что большинство полити- ческих проектов Ж. Болсонару рушит наследие его предшественников, которые успешно поставили Брази- лию на путь страны с великодержавными амбициями. Тем не менее нельзя игнорировать наметившуюся корректировку внешнеполитического курса, которую ярко продемонстрировали политические шаги руковод- ства страны в связи с событиями в Украине в феврале 2022 г. Это позволяет полагать, что Бразилия может вернуться к концептуальным основам своей внешней политики в ближайшем будущем. (Russian) [ FROM AUTHOR] Copyright of Society: Philosophy, History, Culture is the property of LLC Publishing House 'HORS' and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full . (Copyright applies to all s.)